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Escape from Hengyang by Qiong Yao |
In ancient Chinese records, the name of Choson (Chao-xian) had appeared in almost all dynastic chronicles. There are two books that are worthy of special attention: "Shan Hai Jing" and "Huai Nan Zi". "Shan Hai Jing", namely, the Book or Classics of Mountains and Seas, recorded most of the myths and legends of ancient China, and this book, said to have been devised by Lord Yu, strangely, had the stories and accounts of lands as far as Europe and the Americas. Korea or Choson, as a springboard for accessing Sakhalin, the Bering Straits, Aleutian Islands and Japan, land and sea, is usually first mentioned. Sushen-shi (Manchuria), Guzhu (Liaoning) & Shan-rong (Hebei-Liaoning) The first recorded statelet would be Sushen-shi bordering Japan Sea. Sushen first submitted their renowned arrows and bows to Lord Shun during the 25th year reign of Lord Shun (reign 2257-2208 BC ?), and Sushen continued to pay pilgrimage to Zhou Dynasty. Sushen tribe was later known as Yilou. Chinese history recorded succeeding names like Wuji [Huji], Mohe, Bohai and Nuzhen tribes in the same area. Also on record would be a statelet called Guzhu (i.e., lonely bamboo) in southern Manchuria. It was said that Zhou Dynasty founder, Ji Chang, would manage his statelet so well that old people went to the west of China for retirement, and two princes of Guzhu Statelet in southern Manchuria, Bo-yi and Shu-qi of Mo-tai-shi clan, came to live in Zhou land. The barbarians closer to Chinese would be called Shan-rong or Mountain Rong (aka Beirong or Wuzhong) in the northeastern China. Mountain Rongs, at one time, went across the Yan Principality of Hebei Province to attack Qi Principality in today's Shandong Province; 44 years after that, they attacked Yan again; the Yan-Qi joint armies, under the command of Qi Counsellor Guan Zhong, Marquis Qi Huan'gong, and Count Yan, drove them out and moreover penetrated into the Rong land. Around 664 BC, Yan-Qi joint armies destroyed the Mountain Rong Statelet as well as the Guzhu Statelet. During Warring States time period, the barbarians of northeast, i.e., successors of Shan-rong, came to be known as Dong Hu or Eastern Hu people. A Yan Principality General, by the name of Qin-kai, after returning from Donghu as a hostage, would attack Donghu and drive them away for 1000 li distance. Yan built Great Wall and set up Shanggu, Yuyang, You-beiping, Liaoxi and Liaodong prefectures. Dongyi (Easter Yi) Origin Ancient Chinese had different terms for barbarians in four directions. Dongyi or Yi-of-the-East will be designations for people in the east, i.e., the offsprings from the two clans of Tai-hao-shi and Shao-hao-shi. The term meant for different people during different stages of history. Though, legendary overlords of China, like Yandi (Fiery Lord) and Huangdi (Yellow Lord, r. bc 2697-2599 ?), might be both born near Qufu of Shandong Province in the east, and Lord Yandi, Lord Huangdi and Lord Zhuanxu were recorded to have treated Qufu of Shandong as the capital. Sima Qian's "Shi Ji" mentioned that Huangdi (Yellow Lord), in the east, climbed Mount Wan-shan (i.e., Fan-shan in today's Langya, Shandong Peninsula). Among the ancient eight Chinese overlords, clearly seven belonged to the same old family. The lineage of Yandi (Shen-nong), Huangdi, Shaohao, Gaoyang (Lord Zhuanxu), Gaoxin (Diku), Tangyao (Lord Yao), and Yushun (Lord Shun) is spelled out in prehistory section. Even barbarians could be traced to the same family as Chinese founders. Kong An'guo of Han Dynasty claimed that among the four evil tribes exiled by Lord Yao, Hundun were infilial descendants of Huangdi the Yellow Lord; Gun was infilial son of Lord Zhuanxu; the 'Sanmiao' (Qiangic) people were said to be infilial descendants of Yandi the Fiery Lord. At the earliest time of history, the explicit barbarians mentioned would be Xunyu in the north. By the time of Lord Yao (Tangyao, r. bc 2357-2258 ?), the northern barbarians were named Shan-rong, Xianyun and Xunyu, but nothing explicit was mentioned of the east other than the following legend: Lord Shun (reign 2257-2208 BC ?) suggested to Lord Yao to have Gun (Lord Yu's father) executed on Mount Yu-shan (feather mountain, in today's Linyi County, Shandong Prov) for creating detente onto the 'Yi' barbarians. However, Lord Shun himself was said to be a 'Dong-yi' (i.e., Eastern Yi). Yi people, i.e., originally meant for the people to the east, did not carry the directional denotion but for sure played the role of at least 50% influence in prehistoric China. After Lord Shun would be Lord Yu. As pointed out by scholar Zhang Fan in his article, "Research Into Shang Totems and Confucius Ancestry", Lord Yu, per "Mo-zi", had spread teachings to nine Yi people in the east. (See Xia-Shang Dynasties for details on the numerous Eastern Yi groups, including: Quan-yi [doggy Yi], Yu-yi, Fang-yi, Huang-yi [yellow Yi], Chi-yi [red Yi], Bai-yi [white Yi], Xuan-yi [black Yi], Feng-yi [phoenix Yi], Zi-yi, and Yang-yi [sun Yi] etc.) Scholar Wang Zhonghan pointed out that the character 'Yi', having appeared as Shi-fang statelet in Shang Dynasty's oracle bones, would still exist in Shangdong-Jiangsu provinces and around Huai-shui River by late Spring & Autumn time period of Eastern Zhou Dynasty. Wang Zhonghan, after analyzing the wars between Zhou people and numerous Yi people, had concluded that "Eastern Yi" [in Shandong Peninsula] had declined as a result of expeditions by Duke Zhou-gong and King Cheng-wang in early Western Zhou time period; that "Huai-yi" [around Huai-shui River] emerged from middle to late time periods of Western Zhou Dynasty; that "Nan-yi" [in southern or southeastern direction] rose up in influence at time of Zhou King Liwang; and that by the time of Qin-Han Dynasty, 'Dong-yi' would be designation for people in northeastern China, including Korea and Japan. Korean Claim To Be True Descendants Of Dongyi (Easter Yi) The character 'Yi', as shown above, was originally meant for barbarians in the east, but later expanded to be more an inclusive word to mean aliens. The big Korean school of thought, touched on in prehistory section, claimed that the Koreans were true descendants of the Dongyi [Dong-yi] people. Alternative history records stated that Lord Shun was more of 'Yi' nature, which would be to say that Lord Shun, of Yao2 surname, was born near Mount Yaoqiu, near Yuyao of Zhejiang Province in Yangtze Delta. (Ancient records of Kuaiji Commandary stated that Lord Shun was from Shangyu county and that Yaoqiu was 30 Chinese li away from Shangyu; Zhou Chu's "Feng Tu Ji", i.e., Records of Winds and Soils, stated that Lord Shun was a Dongyi.) Note that Shang Dynasty people took pride in Lord Shun being their ancestors. According to Sima Qian's "Shi Ji", the ancestor of the Shang people was named Xie, a son of Lord Diku. Legend said that Xie was born after his mother, Jiandi (Yousong-shi woman, a statelet located in Yuncheng of Shanxi Prov), swallowed an egg of a black bird (swallow). Lord Yao conferred Xie the post of 'si tu' and the last name of 'Zi'. Lord Shun conferred Xie the land of Shang (later Shangluo County) for aiding Yu in flood control. Fourteen generation descendant would be Tang (Shang-Tang), the founder of Shang Dynasty. Korean claim would be complicated by the fact that Shang Dynasty Prince Ji-zi was dispatched to southern Manchuria to be ruler of Choson during 11th century BC. This episode, from Chinese point of view, would have introduced civilization to Manchurian/Korean border areas which was otherwise occupied by barbarians such as Sushen-shi dating from 23rd century BC. By the time of China's Han Dynasty, southern Korean peninsula was ruled by Mahan, Qinhan and Bianhan, among which Qinhan and Bianhin appeared to be more of Chinese nature. After Ji-zi's Choson would be Wei Man usurpation during the 3rd century BC and Han Emperor Wudi's invasion during the late 2nd century BC. Thereafter came waves of Tungusic invasions, similar to northern China's experiences of nomadic ravaging. Koguryo, a Tungusic people, claimed descent from ancient Lord Zhuanxu (Gao-yang-shi) and adopted the surname of 'Gao' (i.e., 'Ko') as their clan name. 
Hence, the identities of Koreans had changed dramatically during the course of history. As one reader speculated, "modern-day Koreans" might very well have "appropriated their (Dongyi) history and myths".
Charcoal remains of 2000-year-old rice in western Japan pointed to China's Yantze Delta as the origin. DNA studies conducted on human remains excavated in Shandong Peninsula
suggested southern and northern points of origin for Jormon and Yayoi Japanese. On basis of various historical records and modern technology analysis, I would speculate: i) that early Korean culture was very much connected with eastern China as a result of nascent human migration from south to north and ii) that Tungusic invasions from Manchuria gradually overtook the early Continental traits.
In both cases, Tungusic or continental, Koreans shared inseparable relations with the Chinese.
Dong-yi (Eastern), Niao-Yi (bird) & Dao-yi (Island) Transformation Sima Qian's "Shi Ji" stopped at Wudi's overthrow of Wei Man Choson. In descriptions of Xu Fu's elixir-seeking journey, Sima Qian did repeat ancient Chinese legends about the islands of Peng-Lai, Fang-Zhang and Ying-Zhou (land in the sea). Chen Shou's "San Guo Zhi" covered the island of Japan and grouped the early Japanese in the section on Dongyi (Eastern Yi). Later history records referred to Japanese as Dao-yi (Island Alien). Sima Qian, in parapgraph about Ji-zhou (ancient Shanxi Prov but appropriated to Hebei Prov to mean Beijing) Prefecture in section on Xia Dynasty, used the designation of Niao-Yi (bird) for barbarians in the east and northeast. The interpretation would be that Niao-yi would be those people who made a living by capturing birds and beasts. In ancient times, the Yi was associated with the word 'niao' for bird as a totem, and there were eight to nine different 'niao-yi' people in the eastern China. Shang Dynasty (16th-1066 BC) people, considered a group of Yi people, were recorded to have treated 'Xuan Niao' (i.e., Black bird, possibly sparrow) as their totem. (Manchurian legends as to the birth of their founder had something to do with swallowing the red fruit dropped by a bird.) Toba Wei Dynasty (AD 386-534), in return for being called the nickname of 'suo lu' (pigtailed enemies), would call southern Chinese by the derogatory name of 'niao yi' (i.e., bird aliens) for possibly southern Chinese pitched accents or generic-kind of name for southeastern Chinese and islanders. In later times, the Yi designation would be associated with a word 'dao' for island, pointing to the barbarian peoples in East China Seas. (Both the character 'niao' and 'dao' looked quite close and might have corrupted consecutively during the course of history.) See Japanese section for descriptions of various statelets beyond Japan. Three Han (2) States The South Koreans call their country 'Haan'(2) or 'Han'(2) (i.e., Da Haan Minh Guo) for a reason. There were several kingdoms by the name of 'Haan'(2) in today's South Korea 1600-2200 years ago, known collectively as the Samhan States. The prefix "sam" (san in Mandarin) means three in Chinese. According to Chen Shou's San Guo Zhi, during China's Han(4) Dynasty, there were on the Korean Peninsula three states with this suffix: Mahan, Chenhan (Chinhan), and Bianhan (Pyonhan). The 'Han(2)' states are mostly states comprising of alliance of city-walled tribes. Mahan was situated to the west of the Korean Peninsula and did not have walls around their cities. Mahan had around 50 tribes and over 100,000 households. Wei Man, a Yan Principality general under King Lu Guan (Han Emperor Liu Bang's childhood pal), crossed the Yalu River into Korea around 196-195 BC, where they requested for asylum with Korean King Ji Zhun (Ki Chun), the ruler of Old Choson. Wei Man assembled the Chinese refugees and, in a matter of years, went to Wang'gom-song (near P'yong'yang) where he defeated the Korean King. King Ji Zhun fled to southern Korea where he proclaimed himself the King of Haan (2) among the Mahan tribes. Chen Shou's San Guo Zhi recorded that Wei Man drove many of Ji Zhun's palace people into the sea, and there was speculation that some of the Ji Zhun people fled to Japan. Chen Shou recorded in 3rd-4th century that some Koreans were still treating Ji Zhun as their ancestor. Chen Shou also recorded that the people in the state of Chenhan (Chinhan) claimed that their ancestors came from China's Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC) and they were allocated the land to the east of Mahan State. Chenhan's language was different from Mahan, their people called their state by a Chinese name of "bang" (the same character as the first name of Han First Emperor Liu Bang), and they looked resembling to the Qin Chinese in clothing style. Chenhan was also called Qinhan, with a prefix representing the Qin Dynasty. Chenhan originally has 6 states and it later split into 12 states. The Chenhan people were not allowed to have their own king, and had to obey to Mahan. The Chenhan people were capable of producing iron and supplied iron to both Mahan and the Wa people in Japan. Bianhan (Pyonhan) also had 12 states. Together with Chenhan's 12 states, there were about 40-50,000 households. Chen Shou said that Chenhan and Bianhan peoples lived together among themselves and they did possess city walls. http://www.koreanhistoryproject.org stated that "China's overwhelming presence on the Korean Peninsula affected not only Choson, but the southern Samhan states, where there was strong interest in acquiring the benefits of China's highly advanced culture. China had a great interest in Korea's natural resources, and whenever the Han Chinese sought economic gain or political submission from areas beyond their direct rule, they traditionally granted local leaders titular office and rank, official seals and ceremonial attire. In exchange, the Chinese got what they wanted without having to resort to force. Unlike the volatile Xiungnu to the north, southern Korea's inhabitants were primarily settled people who seemed quite willing to adopt most of the essential elements of Chinese culture. The leaders of the three Samhan States were generally eager participants in this tributary relationship. Through such exchanges, southern Korea's tribal societies not only absorbed the benefits of Chinese culture, they maintained their political independence in the process. Although the entire region tended to remain a Chinese sphere of influence, the Samhan states achieved impressive new developments on their own despite China's presence and sowed the seeds of a new social dynamism in Korea." Choson While Koreans boasted of the founding of old Choson by Tangun (i.e., Tan-jun, by the name of Wang Jian) in 2333 BC, Chinese records pointed to Ji Zi or Ki Jia or Chi Tsu (ex-Shang Dynasty prince) being dispatched to Korea by Zhou Dynasty Archduke as a ruler. Ji Zi was conferred the title of Marquis by Zhou Dynasty. He devised eight clauses of teachings for his citizens, and it was said that during his reign, people did not have to close doors at night. Ji Zi's dynasty lasted over 40 generations, till Ji Zhun proclaimed himself a king instead of a marquis. http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~korea/Old_1.html states that "in 1122 BC (note different calendar was used here), there was an alleged arrival of Kija from Shang China." Ji-zi was the uncle of last Shang ruler. http://www.koreanhistoryproject.org proposed a different story, namely, the Ji-zi exodus happened during the first campaign of Zhou King Wuwang, sometime before Zhou overthrew the Shang rule. It said that the group of people who migrated to Korea would be about 5000 in total. The Korean school of thought used a different calendar than what Chinese had adopted. Their timeframe for Zhou Dynasty would be 1122 BC - 256 BC. Ancient records show that Ji-zi was imprisoned by last Shang King Zhouwang and would not be set free till Zhou King Wuwang took over the Shang capital. Ji-zi exodus must have occurred after Shang's demise. History also claimed that after Shang Prince Wugeng's rebellion, another group of Shang remnants fled to ancient Su-shen-shi Statelet in Manchuria, and speculations went as far as North American continent for a link of American Indians and Shang Chinese. "Choson" would be the same name today's Chinese use in designating the Peninsula. It means 'morning freshness ' or 'morning dews'. The second word in 'Choson' could have probably mutated from the word 'Xian', meaning fairy; and it could also be River Xian-shui, i.e., one of the three ancient rivers in southern Manchuria. Chinese classics "Dong-guo [eastern statelet] yudi [domain] shenglan [slendid view]" interpreted Chaoxian [Choson] as meaning the brightness [xian] of the morning [chao] sun. During the Warring States (403-221 BC), there was an invasion by Qin Kai of Yan Principality in 311 BC, which caused ancient Korea a loss of 2000-li territory. Qin-kai, after returning from Donghu as a hostage, would attack Donghu or the Eastern Hu barbarians and drive them away for 1000 li distance. Yan built Great Wall and set up Shanggu, Yuyang, You-beiping, Liaoxi and Liaodong prefectures. (Qin-kai was said to be ancestor of the lad called Qin Wuyang who accompanied Jing Ke on the journey to assassinating Qin Emperor Shihuangdi.) Today's Koreans called their peninsula via a term of "Beautiful 3000 Li Territory", i.e., a measure of 2100 Korean li from north to south and 900 Korean li from west to east; and a comparative unit of measure could be used for interpretating the ancient "li" measure. By the end of Qin Dynasty [221-206 BC], rebellions of Chen Sheng & Wu Guang and in-fighting between Liu Bang and Xiang Yu led to an inflow of tens of thousands of Yan-Qi-Zhao peoples to the Korean Peninsula. In early years of Han Dynasty (206 BC-23 AD), a Yan Principality general called Wei Man entered Korea around 196-195 BC and he later usurped the Ji family kingdom. (An excellent account of Korea's history would be that by a Korean veteran at http://www.koreanhistoryproject.org. It is said that Wei Man "pushed southward through the Chabiryong Pass to the Han River and subjugated the neighboring state of Chinbon. In the northeast, Wiman's forces conquered the Imdun tribes in the southern Hamgyong region. At its height, Wiman Choson controlled several hundred miles of territory across the waist of the Korean peninsula.") In 109 BC, Han Emperor Wudi invaded Korea and Wei Man's grandson, Wei Youqu (Wei Ugo), was killed by his ministers. Wudi's campaigns against Korea had to do with his worries about a possible alliance between the Huns and the Koreans. Wudi was also unhappy about Choson's cutting off the trade routes between China and the state of Chen (Chenhan or Chinhan) which was on the southern end of the Korean peninsula. In 109 BC, the Han court envoy to Choson, She He, killed the Korean escort and claimed to Wudi that he killed a Korean general. The Koreans avenged later by killing She He. Using She He's death as a pretext, Emperor Wudi dispatched two armies against Choson in the autumn of 109 BC, via sea and land, respectively. Unable to subjugate Choson in the first campaign, Wudi sent another envoy to Choson and succesfully pursuaded Korean King into sending the prince to China's court as a hostage. But a Chinese general's attempt of dismantling the Korean prince's entourage aborted the peace efforts. Renewed fighting caused Choson to disintegrate internally. Yok-kye, a Choson minister, fled south to the State of Qin-han with two thousand households including metallurgists, farmers and etc. In the summer of 108 BC, the ministers of Choson King assassinated their king and surrendered to Chinese. Wei Man Choson and Wang'gom-song fell to Chinese. Thereafter, Wudi established four commandaries. In 107 BC, Lelang Commandary was set up; in 106 BC, Xuantu Commandary was set up. The four commandaries, in the order of north to south, would be Xuantu, Lindun, Lelang, and Zhenfan, with Xuantu along the Yalu River and Zhenfan to the south of today's P'yong'yang. As detailed at http://www.koreanhistoryproject.org, "Lolang, a newly-constructed walled-city on the south bank of the broad T'aedong River near Wang'gom-song, became the seat of power for China's colonial policy in Choson." However, the Chinese control gradually waned. "After twenty-five years of determined opposition by local populations, China abolished the Chen-fan and Lin-t'un military districts." In 82 BC, Commandaries Zhenfan and Lindun were eliminated, and the areas under their jurisdiction were transferred to the administrative rule of Lolang and Xuantu. In 75 BC, Xuantu commadary was moved "from former Yemaek territory to an area in east central Manchuria." Reading through Chinese records, the conclusion would be that the domain of Korea or Choson under Ji Zi or Wei Man was limited to the areas in and around today's eastern Liaoning Province and northern Korea. Emperor Wudi's control of the Korean Peninsula still failed to reach the southern tip. It would be during the time period of late Han Dynasty and the Three Kingdoms that China would control the whole segment of the Korean Peninsula, with influences extending to the southern tip. General Gongsun Du, under the order of Dong Zhuo (who hand-picked the last Han emperor), crossed the sea to campaign in Korea and set up several commandaries including Daifang and Lelang. General Wu Qiujian of Wei Dynasty (AD 220-265), one of the Three Kingdoms of China, would be responsible for defeating Koguryo and extended China's influence to Japan. Tunguzic Speculation Korean language belonged to Altaic family. The language family "Altaic" is a much later concept, devised by some Russian colonialists in the 20th century; in history, we have today's French, descendants of the Barbarian Franks, speaking the Latin family while Rome was already gone with Lingua Latina, an example that language does not determine origin and ethnicity. The Korean language, belonging to the so-called Altaic language family against the Sino-Tibetan language family of the Chinese, however, could be a much later phenomenon. As detailed below, ancient Korea was invaded by Puyo and Koguryo peoples, i.e., nomadic tribes from Manchuria. Ji-zi's Choson and Wei Man's Korea could very well be different from later Koguryo as far as language / speech is concerned. Archaic Korean language had already disappeared in Korea, but it was said to have retained some elements in Japanese language. Donghu: Xianbei & Wuhuan Chinese records categorically said that "the ancestry of the Manchus can be traced back more than 2,000 years to the Sushen tribe, and later to the Yilou, Wuji [Huji], Mohe and Nuzhen tribes native to the Changbai Mountains and the drainage area of the Heilong River in northeast China." Here, the name Sushen would be used for ancient Manchurians during Zhou Dynasty time period, Yilou during early Han Dynasty time period, Wuji [Huji] during Toba's Northern Wei Dynasty, Mohe (Malgal) during Sui Dynasty, Bohai (Palhae) during Tang Dynasty, and Ruzhen (Nuzhen) during Song Dynasty. The confusing part would be the time period when Manchuria and Korea experienced the first wave of Tunguzic invasions, namely, after Han Dynasty and before Toba Northern Wei Dynasty. (The Chinese way to tell the continuity of people in one area was unscientific: Sushen-shi was recorded to have sent in bows and arrows using stone arrowhead and promenade arrow-shaft during the 25th year reign of Lord Shun [reign 2257-2208 BC ?]. When Marquis Chen-guo asked about a fallen eagle with a stone arrowhead, Confucius reminded the marquis of an early record on book stating that Sushen-shi had sent in arrow tributes to Zhou King Wuwang who subsequently subscribed Sushen-shi characters and allocated to various vassals as a gift. Marquis Chen-guo did locate the ancient arrow in storage and found it to be same. Sushen-shi, living in Manchuria bordering Japan Sea, had sent in tributes after Zhou King Wuwang built roads leading to four barbarian directions.) The demise of Han Dynasty saw Xianbei and Wuhuan taking over the old territories from the Huns in the northern borders as well as invading into Korea Peninsula. Chen Shou commented that Ke'bineng Xianbei had at one time covered the territories from the Liao River of Manchuria in the east to Yunzhong/Wuyuan in the west. Xianbei had prospered after Cao Cao conquered Wuhuan. Wuhuan was absorbed by both Cao Cao and Xianbei, and its name disappeared thereafter, only to re-emerge in 10th century war with Khitans. Several Wuhuan chieftans, including Qiuliju (Liaoxi Wuhuan Da Ren, with 5000 households), Nanlou (Shanggu Wuhuan Da Ren, with 9000 households), Supuyan (Liaodong Wuhuan Da Ren, with thousands of households) and Wuyan (You-beiping Wuhuan Da Ren, with 800 households), were controlled by a Han Chinese rebel governor called Zhang Chun of Zhongshan Prefecture. Han Emperor Lingdi (r. 168-189) assigned Liu Yu as governor-general of Youzhou (Beijing) and Liu Yu hired some nomads to have Zhang Chun killed. After the death of Chieftan Louban, an adopted son called Tadun took over the chieftan post. Tadun assisted Yuan Shao in the wars on Gongsun Zan. At one time during the Three Kingdoms time period, Yuan Shao had pacified three prefectures of Wuhuan and heavily recruited them as mercenary cavalry. Yuan Shao privately conferred the title of 'Chanyu' on Wuhuan chieftans in the name of Han court. When the son of Wuhuan Chieftan Qiuliju grew up, he would compete with Tadun for power. A Chinese by the name of Yan Rou (who enjoyed trust among Wuhuan-Xianbei for his spending childhood years in the barbarian land) would kill the Chinese colonel (xiaowei) in charge of Wuhuan and ursurped the post. Yuan Shao retained Yan Rou as the 'Wuhuan Colonel'. Cao Cao later defeated Wuhuan chieftan Tadun who offered asylum to two sons of Yuan Shao. Cao Cao won over Yan Rou when he campained against Wuhuan in AD 206. Wuhuan chieftans were all decaptitated when they fled to Liaodong (east Liaoning Province) for asylum. Over 10,000 Wuhuan households under Yan Rou would relocate to China under the order of Cao Cao. Wuhuan people would serve Cao Cao as mercenary cavalry. Two Xianbei tribal groups came into play, the Lesser Xianbei under Ke'bineng and Greater Xianbei under Budugeng and his brother Fuluohan. Ke'bineng heavily employed Chinese defectors and utilized Chinese weaponry and language. Ke'bineng had at one time assisted Cao Cao in cracking down on Tian Ying Rebellion, but he also rebelled against Cao Cao and Cao Wei Chinese several times. Cao Cao once sent Marquis Yanling to defeat Ke'bineng and cause him flee outside of Chinese border. In AD 219, Ke'bineng sent an emissary, with tributes of horses, to last Han Emperor Xiandi who was under Cao Cao protection. Cao Wei Emperor Wendi conferred Ke'bineng the title of King of Fuyi (attached loyalty). Beginning from AD 221, several times, Ke'bineng repatriated Cao Wei Chinese back to Chinese territories. Ke'bineng rebelled against Cao Wei Chinese again because Tian Yu interferred in Ke'bineng wars with both Eastern Xienbei under Suli and Xianbei Chieftan under Budugeng. Ke'bineng complained about this to General Xianyu Fu, mentioning the fact that his brother was killed by Budugeng. Ke'bineng said he was recommended for the post by Yan Rou, he was grateful to Chinese and he did not want to rebel against Chinese because Tian Yu was giving him troubles. Ke'bineng boasted of over 100,000 cavalry. A Wuhuan chieftan at Dai Prefecture, by the name of Nengchendi, surrendered to Budugeng but also asked for protection from Ke'bineng. When the two Xianbei chieftans converged for controlling the Wuhuan, Ke'bineng killed Fuluohan and took over the Xianbei people led by Fuluohan's son, Xie-guini. Hence, two Xianbei tribes warred with each other. Cao Wei Emperor Wendi (Cao Pi) conferred Tian Yu the post of 'Wuhuan Colonel' with extra authority over Xianbei people, and Tian Yu had his office situated at Changping (near Beijing). Ke'bineng would defeat all tribes including Wuhuan, extending their territories from Yunzhong & Wuyuan north of Shanxi border all the way to Manchuria. Ke'bineng defeated two Chinese generals, Tian Yu and Bi Gui. The other chieftan, Budugeng, relocated to Taiyuan and Yanmen with his over 10,000 households. Budugeng further sent a messenger to his niece Xie-guini and caused Xie-guini defect from Ke'bineng. By AD 224, Budugeng sought vassalage with Cao Wei Emepror Wendi. In AD 228, Tian Yu's emissary to Xianbei was killed by Ke'bineng's son-in-law. Hence, Tian Yu dispatched Pudou (Western Xianbei Chieftan ) and Xie-guini to attack Ke'bineng as a retaliation. When Ke'bineng encircled Tian Yu with 30,000 cavalry, Governor-General of Shanggu, Yan Zhi (Yan Rou's brother), went to see Ke'bineng and pursuaded Ke'bineng into a ceasefire. Later, the new governor-general of Youzhou, Wang Xiong, was conferred the post of Wuhuan Captain. Ke'bineng, several times, expressed loyalty to Wang Xiong. In AD 233, Ke'bineng won back Budugeng by means of an inter-marriage. Budugeng ordered Xie-guini to go back and serve under Ke'bineng, pillaging Chinese prefecture of Bingzhou. General Qin Lang counter-attacked, and Xie-guini surrendered and was conferred the title of King of Guiyi (i.e., returning loyalty) and the land of Bingzhou. Later, Budugeng was killed by Ke'bineng. Ke'bineng ordered his son go to Loufan to fight the wars with General Su Shang and Dong Bi (both under Governor Bi Gui of Bingzhou) and killed the two. During Qinglong Era, about 235 AD, Cao Wei Emperor Mingdi (Cao Rui) took the advice of Wang Xiong and had Ke'bineng assassinated by someone called Han Long. The brother of Ke'bineng was selected as the new chieftan. In southern Manchuria, Eastern Xianbei enjoyed more head-count than Ke'bineng Xianbei. There would exist chieftans like Suli, Mijia and Jueji in Liaoxi (western Liaoning Prov), Youbeiping (northwest of Beijing) and Yuyang. Jueji's son was conferred the title of King Qinhan (befriending Han), and Suli's brother, Chengluegui, succeeded the King title, too. Puyo & Koguryo As a result of Wudi's campaigns, the eastern Liaoning area and northern Korea would become a springboard for reaching other peoples. Two groups of Eastern Hu nomads would exist to the west of four commandaries, the Xianbei and Wuhuan nomads in today's western Liaoning Province. To the northeast of Xuantu Commandary would be an ancient country called Yilou (ancient name being Su Shen) which had surrendered treasures to Zhou Dynasty in ancient times. Su Shen apparently had its border on the Japan Sea. To the north of Xuantu Commandary would be a country called Fuyu (Puyo or Puyeo) which originally was subject to the Xuantu commandary. Fuyu (Puyo or Puyeo) bordered with Koguryo to the south, Yilou to the east, Xianbei to the west and Luosui (soft water) to the north. According to Chen Shou, Fuyu (Puyo or Puyeo) had 80,000 households. Fuyu shared the same customs as the Huns on the matter of taking over the concubines of late father or late brothers. Fuyu adopted live burial and the burial objects could reach hundreds in headcount. Fuyu kings could be sacrificed to the god should the people experience droughts and disasters. During the latter part of the 1st century BC, Tungusic Puyo tribes moved south towards the Yalu and T'ung-chia [Datong-jiang] River basins from the Manchuria's Sungari [Songhuali] River basin. http://www.koreanhistoryproject.org stated that "five Puyo clans led by Chu-mong [Zhu-mang] rode into the rugged mountainous country of the Yemaek and established new settlements of their own. ... By 37 BC, the territory emerged as the confederated kingdom of Koguryo. ... Koguryo emerged within the territory administered by China's Xuantu Commandery and developed in the context of a nearly continuous conflict with the Chinese. King Yuri-myong, who succeeded Tong-myong in 19 BC, ruled Koguryo from his rugged mountain stronghold at Kungnae-song [Guonei-cheng]..." Koguryo was said to have been founded in 37 BC. According to Chen Shou, it was located thousand li (an ancient unit for distance) to the east of today's eastern Liaoning Province. Their ancestors had come from the background of Tungunzic peoples in Manchuria. (Xianbei and Wuhuan are also referred to as Tungunzic peopels. I will say Xianbei and Wuhuan, after being driven away by the Huns from Mongolia, had mixed up with the original Tungunzic people in Manchuria.) It bordered with Fuyu (Puyo or Puyeo) to the north and Woju (Ohcho?) to the east. It had 30,000 households. Koguryo was recorded to have same language and customs as Fuyu (Puyo or Puyeo). Its capital was at a place called Wandu. In camparison with Fuyu, Koguryo land was all mountains and it had no plains or lakes. It had five tribes at one time: Weinu Tribe, Juenu Tribe, Sunnu Tribe, Guannu Tribe, Guilou Tribe. During the Xin Dynasty (AD 9-23), Emperor Wang Mang had tried to recruit the Koguryo people in the campaigns against northern nomads. But the Koguryo people refused to participate in the campaign, and most of the Koguryo soldiers fled northward as bandits. Governor Tian Tan tried to capture the Koguryo soldiers but got killed. Emperor Wang Mang tricked the Koguryo marquis into arrest and killed him. Wang Mang thus renamed Koguryo or Ko-guryo into Xia-guryo. In here, the prefix "Ko" means high, and "Xia" means lower in Chinese. By the time of eighth year of first Latter Han (AD 25-220) Emperor Guangwudi's reign, the Koguryo marquis sent emmisary to the Chinese capital in the name of a king (rather a marquis). In late Latter Han (AD 25-220) Dynasty, Koguryo King Gong began to raid into Liaodong and Xuantu commandaries. Both Woju and Dong-hui (i.e., Eastern Hui-mo) were subject to Koguryo King. By the end of Han Dynasty (AD 25-220), General Gongsun Du, under the order of Dong Zhuo, took over today's eastern Liaoning Province and was conferred the post of governor-general. Gongsun Du later sent generals Gongsun Muo and Zhang Pi to southern Korea where they defeated the Han(2) peoples in southern Korea. His son, Gongsu Kang, set up a new commandary called Daifang (or Taifang), in addition to the Lelang Commandary in north Korea. Daifang Commandary was in charge of both southern Korean and the Wa State in Japan. King Yuqiutai or Yuqiu Tai of Fuyu (Puyo or Puyeo) submitted to Gongsun Du and was married with the daughter of Gongsun family. Gongsun Du based his intermarriage on the consideration that Fuyu was in an important situation of being sandwiched between the Xianbei and Koguryo. (In late 230s AD, Cao Wei Emperor Mingdi secretly ordered that Liu Xin of Daifang Commandary and Xianyu Si of Lelang Commandary attack the Han-hui and Wa statelets.) After the fall of Dong Zhuo and the rise of Ts'ao Ts'ao (Cao Cao), Gongsun Kang (i.e., Gongsun Du's son), killed the two asylum-seeking sons of warlord Yuan Shao and sent their heads to Ts'ao Ts'ao, thus being conferred the title of Marquis of Xiangping. Gongsun Du's grandson, Gongsun Yuan, would later play the trick of submission and defection among the Wei and Wu dynasties of Three Kingdom China. After killing the Wu emmisaries and sending their heads to Wei Dynasty, Gongsu Yuan was conferred the title of Duke of Lelang. Gongsun Yuan, thinking that nobody could control him in the remote areas of Korea, fought against General Wu Qiujian of Youzhou Commandary. Gongsun Yuan claimed to be King of Yan. Sima Yi, under the order of Cao Wei Emperor Mingdi (Cao Rui), campaigned against the Gongsun regime and exterminated their whole family, ending 50 years of Gongsun family ruling. Later, a cross-see campaign was waged and Chinese control was exerted over the areas of Lelang and Daifang commandaries. During the Wei Dynasty (AD 220-265) of the Three Kingdoms period, the Koguryo peoples raided into Chinese territories frequently. Gongsun Kang had at one time destroyed a state established by one of the two grandsons of Koguryo King Gong. The other grandson bore a son to be named the same name as their ancestor, Gong. This new Koguryo King Gong had, earlier, assisted the Wei China in its campaign against Gongsun Yuan. But years later, the Koguryo under Gong rebeled against China. General Wu Qiujian of Youzhou Commandary dispatched Governor of Xuantu, Wang Qi, to Fuyu (Puyo or Puyeo), and Wang Qi successfully pursuaded Fuyu in providing support to the Chinese army in the campaign against Koguryo. In Fuyu (Puyo or Puyeo) state, there was a city called Mo which could be the same as the Mo state as recorded in Chinese history. (Mo or Huimou would alternatively be known as Yemaek or Wimo.) Chen Shou recorded that the Fuyu (Puyo or Puyeo) and Koguryo peoples shared the same language, but different styles of clothing and temperament. Yilou, Woju, Eastern Woju & Northern Woju General Wu Qiujian of Youzhou Commandary fought the wars against Koguryo in 244 AD, forcing Koguryo King Gong into fleeing to Woju. (Woju people were located in the Xuantu Commandary after Han Emepror Wudi defeated Chosen King Wei Youqu in 108 BC. Being attacked by the Mo people, Woju relocated to the northwest of Koguryo, and it was at one time a county under Lelang Commandary. Woju was conferred the title of marquis. Woju submitted to Koguryo later.) Eastern Woju was said to have similar language as Koguryo. Still one more Woju would be called Southern Woju. All Woju statelets shared the same customs though they were apart by 800 Chinese li distance. Governor-general Wang Qi was ordered to press on against Gong. After another defeat, King Gong fled to Northern Woju, a state which bordered Yilou to the south. (Yilou would be where the ancient Su-shen state was or Sushen-shi people were.) Yilou was famous for its long bow with poison arrowheads. It was on the seaside that Wang Qi asked people whether there were people in the sea. Chen Shou said the people of Yilou looked similar to Koguryo and Fuyu, but the language differed from each other. Locals said there was an island to the east where there was a habit of sinking a virgin girl every July of the year. That island could be either Sakhalin or Japan. Mo (Huimou, Wimo Or Yemaek) In southern Manchuria and northern Korea, there was the statelet by the name of 'Mo'. Chinese records categorically said 'Mo' was an ancient ethnic group in Manchuria. But it did not specifically link it to any other major group. (Prof Wei Juquan speculated that Mo people had later related to Arctic area to beome the Eskimo.) Reading through Chen Shou's San Guo Zhi, the conclusion would be that the Fuyu people had in their possession the ancient 'King Mo Seal'. This seal was found in a jade box that was sent to Xuantu Commandary for safebox keeping. Inside of Fuyu territories, there was a city by the name of Huimou (alternatively called Yemaek or Wimo). The Mo city could be the same as the Mo state as recorded in Chinese history. Since Fuyu (Puyo or Puyeo) and Koguryo peoples shared the same language, the speculation would be that the Mo people were Tunguzic, too. Chen Shou's San Guo Zhi further said that to the south of Koguryo would be Chosen (Chao-xian) and Hui-mo. Also mentioned would be that both Woju and Dong-hui (i.e., Eastern Hui-mo) were subject to Koguryo King. Still more reference to 'Mo' would be a group called 'Yi-mo' (alien Mo) who drove Eastern Woju people to the northwest of Koguryo. Still one more name related to 'Mo' would be a statelet called 'Xiao-shui-mo', meaning a 'Mo' statelet dwelling near a small river. This name applied to a so-called alternative race of Koguryo, a group of people who did not compete with Koguryo people who had a habit of dwelling near the big river. The small river of 'Xiao-shui-mo' was situated to the west of an ancient county called Anping and it flowed southward into the sea. 'Xiao-shui-mo' was famous for producing a kind of bow called 'Mo Bow'. San Guo Zhi records showed that Chinese used 'Mo' as a categorical designation for people in the area. When Emperor Wudi invaded Korea in 108 BC, Wei Man Chosen was divided into four commandaries, with Woju city belonging to Xuantu Commandary. A city called Bunaicheng was established to take charge of seven counties in eastern Korea. In AD 30, Latter Han Emperor Guangwudi used the chieftans as the county marquis. Bunaicheng chieftan was named 'Mo Hou' or Marquis Mo. When Usurper Emperor Wang Mang campaigned against Koguryo, a minister called Yan You named the Koguryo people as 'Mo Ren', i.e., 'Mo' people. By the time of late Han Dynasty, under the reign of Emperor Huandi and Emperor Lingdi, Chinese fled to Korea in hordes because the so-called 'Han Hui' was strong while China proper was in turmoils. The reference here would be to equate Han(2) or Haan as the same statelet as 'Mo', and this would be the statelets like Qinhan in southern Korea. San Guo Zhi continued to say that 'Hui' or Huimo bordered with Qinhan to the south and the sea to the east. It had 20,000 households, all cultivated under the eight clauses of Shang Dynasty Prince Ji-zi. The people would include tens of thousands of Chinese refugess who came to Korea during the demise years of Qin Dynasty. It possessed the titles like 'Hou Yi Jun' (marqui city prince) and 'San Lao' (three elderly people) during Han Dynasty. The history said all Eastern Korea was under Marquis Mo of Bunaicheng city. San Guo Zhi said the elderly people mentioned that they were of same ethnical background as the Koguryo people to the north. The people adopted the Chinese way of marriage, namely, the people of same last name could not marry each other. As mentioned in previous paragraph, by the time of late Han Dynasty, under the reign of Emperor Huandi and Lingdi, Korea was referred to as the so-called 'Han Hui', pointing to the statelets like Qinhan in Southern Korea. When Gongsun Kang was ordered to launch Daifang Commandary in the desolate areas to the south of Lelang, he attacked the so-called Han-hui. When Chinese tried to divide eight states of Qinhan for sake of giving them over to Lelang Commandary, the Han-hui people rebelled. Governor Gong Zun of Daifang Commandary and Governor Liu Mao of Lelang Commandary joined forces and conquered Han-hui in late 230s AD. (Gong Zun was killed in the war.) Wa People & Koreans There are very important questions here. Is Wa State mentioned in China's records in early 1st century AD the same as that which existed during China's Sui Dynasty (AD 581-618)? Is the Wa State the same as the Yamato? And, is the Yamato Kingdom the same as the Nippon (i.e., Chinese Ri Ben or English Japan) of late 7th century AD? We will touch on these topics in Japanese section. Below, we will mention the relationship between the Wa State and the Koreans. The Wa people in then Japan had close relationships with the Chenhan and Bianhan peoples in southern tip of the Korean Peninsula. The Daifang Commandary of Wei China, located near the present capital city of Seoul, was in charge of affairs of the Wa State. http://plaza14.mbn.or.jp/~sinkodai/efuruta/jimmue/jimmue.html said that "Chiu-T'ang-shu or old T'ang History (*5) contains the Records on Japan and Wa-state, and one passage in it radically contradicts the existing dogmatic interpretations advanced by historians of ancient Japan. According to this passage, Wa-state was granted a gold seal by Kuang-wu of Later Han dynasty." Hou Han Shu, written in 5th century, stated on basis of San Guo Zhi that "the King of Wa resides in the country of Yamadai (disputed to be Yamaichi as a result of the error by the author of Hou Han Shu). In the second year of the Jienwu Zhongyuan era, namely, A.D. 57, the Wa Nu Country (located in south of Wa) sent an envoy with tribute and he called himself Dafu. Guangwudi bestowed on him a seal. In the first year of the Yongchu era (A.D. 107), during the reign of Andi, the King of Wa presented one hundred sixty slaves. During the reigns of Huandi (147-168) and Lingdi (168-189), the country of Wa was in war and conflict raging on all sides and there was no ruler till a woman named Pimiko was selected as a ruler." The Wa people requested for pilgrimage to Chinese capital with Governor-General Liu Xia of Daifang Commandary. Diplomatic emissaries were frequently exchanged, and seals were conferred upon the Wa Queen by Wei China. In the first year of Zhengshi, AD 240, Governor Gong Zun sent Ti Zhun to Wa. In Jan of A.D. 238, the Queen of Wa sent an emissary (da fu Nan-sheng-mi) to Daifang Commandary, requesting pilgrimage for seeing Chinese emperor. In Dec, Emperor Mingdi (Cao Rui) acknowledged receipt of 4 Wa males and 6 Wa females, and conferred the title of Qin-wei-wo-wang (king befriending Cao Wei) onto Wa Queen plus hundred bronze mirrors, pearls, silk and other precious gifts. In AD 240, Gong Zun dispatched Ti Jun to Wa for conferral, and proxy Wa king replied with thanks. In AD 243, Wa king dispatched Wa da fu to China. In AD 245, Wei China conferred Nan-sheng-mi a title. In AD 245, Governor Gong Zun and Governor Liu Mao defeated Marquis Bunai-hou. In AD 247, Marquis Bunai-hou sent tribute to Cao Wei and was conferred the king of Bunai-Mo. Later, around AD 247, when the Wa State in Japan had internal turmoils because Himiko was at odds with the King of Kunu (Bei-mi-gong-hu-su), Queen Himiko (Pimiko) requested with the new Governor-General of Daifang Commandary, Wang Qi, for assistance. An official called Zhang Zheng was dispatched to the Wa State in the 8th year of Cheng-shih or AD 247. When Pimiko passed away, Iyo, a girl of thirteen, was made queen. Pimiko death led to a turmoil with thousand deaths. Pimiko live burial included hundred slaves and servants. When Zhang Zheng returned to China with two dozens of Wa people, it was already dozens of years later and China was ruled by Western Jinn Dynasty which had usurped the Wei Dynasty in AD 265. Mysterious Fourth Century About one hundred years of history, from Queen Himiko era of AD 269 to the so-called Homuda Invasion of AD 369, was in a kind of black box. There is no way to find out what happened to Himiko's Wa State or her rival state of Kunu. Some speculations exist: Himiko Wa of Kyushu absorbed Kunu and expanded into Yamato in Honshu, Kunu absorbed Wa and expanded into Yamato, or an invasion force from Korea landed in Kyushu and then expanded into Yamato in Honshu. To find out what might have happened, we would have to examine the traces of history from later times. Liu Yu's Song Dynasty (AD 420-479), according to Liang Dynasty (AD 502-557)'s Shen Yue, had conferred the (blank) title of 'King of Six States' of Wa, Silla, Qinhan and Bianhan etc onto Wa King. Throughout the short history of Eastern Jinn & Liu Song dynasties, the Wa Japanese had sent numerous missions, and one Korean mission, with Japanese emissary on board, was recorded to have cried aloud when they saw the dilapidated Jinn Chinese capital which just went through an war as a result of internal rebellion. The contacts between Japanese and southern Chinese were understandable in that the northern China was in the hands of the nomads and the traditional Korean route was already cut off at the time. Liu Song Dynasty's designation of 'King of Six States' could be a good proof that the Wa State (Wa-koku) did exert influences over Peninsula Korea in some way as a result of colonization by the Koreans. The two successive dynasties of Qi (AD 479-502) and Liang (AD 502-557) continued to receive Japanese emissaries. Liang reaffirmed the title of 'King of Six States' to the Wa State. Song Shu recorded that in AD 421, Wa King Zan sent over tributes and Liu Song Emperor Gaozu decreed that Wa Statelet could be exempted from the requirement due to sea perils. It further stated that in AD 425, Wa King dispatched a 'sima' called Cao Da to Liu Song court. When Wa King, Tsan [Zan] died, his brother, Zhen , came to the throne. He sent an envoy to the Liu Song Court with tribute in A.D. 438 in the name of "King of Wa, Paekche, Silla, Imna, Chinhan, and Mahan (Mok-han) and Generalissimo Andong Da Jiangjun (i.e., the general who pacifies the east)." In AD 443, Wa King Ji (Sai) was also confirmed the same title as King of 6 states. In A.D. 451, the title of 6 states was changed a bit, to Six States of Wa, Silla, Imna, Kara, Chin-han, and Mok-han. "Paekche" was replaced by Kala (Kara). In AD 462, the son of Wa King, Xing (Ko), was confirmed the same title. King Bu, Ko's brother, was last granted the title in A.D. 478. Nan-Qi Shu recorded that Wa King Wu (Bu) was promoted to Zhendong Da Jiangjun (i.e., the general who quells the east), King of Wa, and 'du-du' or governor of Seven States in A.D. 479, and Liang Shu recorded that King Bu was further promoted to Zhengdong Da Jiangjun (i.e., the general who campaigns in the east) in A.D. 502. Song Shu or History of Liu Song Dynasty did not expound the relationship between Wa and Korea of the time, unfortunately. In AD 478, Wa King sent an emissary to Emperor Shundi, claiming that they had campaigned against 55 eastern statelets of hairy people, 66 statelets in the east, and 95 statelets in the north. Wa King also complained that Koguryo had raided his emissaries for Liu Song court. Wontack Hong, at http://gias.snu.ac.kr/wthong/, had a very good account of the intricacies involved in here. He pointed that many scholars ( including Hirano, 1977) believed that the "rulers of Yamato Wa were placed below the kings of Koguryeo and Paekche because when King was given the title of Andong Jiangjun in A.D. 462, ... , the king of Koguryeo bore the title of Zhengdong Jangjun and the king of Paekche Zhendong Da Jiangjun. ... The king of Paekche must have been in the position of an overlord ..." Hong further stated that "Wa Kings could not have included the names of non-existent states (Chin-han, and Mok-han). One may then conclude that the remnants of Chin-han or Ma-han existed as other members of the Kaya Federation by ... fifth century. .. Town states constituting Ma-han and Chin-han were by themselves no longer independent political entities [having mostly been conquered by Paekche and Silla, except those remaining as the member states of the Kaya Federation]". Silla's position was apparently less than that of Paekche. "According to Samguk-sagi, Silla established the first contact with the Southern Chinese Dynasties in A. D. 521 by sending an envoy to the Court of Liang along with the Paekche envoy." Later, at one time, when Yamato Wa requested that their monks be sent to China under the umbrella of Silla embassy, the Silla flatly refused it. Invasion Theory The Japanese could not agree upon any specific date as to their prehistory. Conventional world history book cited the event that happened in the year of AD 391 as something corrobarated by three parties, China, Japan and Korea. The Chinese record is to be searched yet for this claim. The Koreans flatly denied that it was an invasion into Korea by Wa Japan at all. But in this year, http://home.earthlink.net/~dlturk/japanhistory/yamatohistory.html stated that the "Japanese forces cross to Korea, defeat Paekche and Silla armies and establish a small colony (called Mimana) on the southern tip of the pennensula. To thank the Japanese for helping save his territory from the Silla, the king of Paekche sends scholars to Japan. With them they bring the Chinese writing system." http://home.earthlink.net/~dlturk/japanhistory/yamatohistory.html made a rough time table for the Yamato Period to be AD 300-550. By adopting AD 300-550, the Jimmu Tenno Invasion would have happened around AD 300, instead of something like in the middle of first millennium BC. This certainly is close to the Korean claim that in 369 AD, Paekche's Prince Homuda led a expeditionary force to Japan and colonized the country as Yamato. What happened then in the fourth century at all? Wontack Hong, at http://gias.snu.ac.kr/wthong/, firmly believed that the so-called invasion of Mimana in southern Korea was not an action on the part of the Wa Japan, but an on-route campaign by Paekche armies. The Paekche armies, in order to cross the see to Japan, would have no choice but to go through the territories of Mimana. Hong borrowed some research from a Japanese scholar called Egami (1964) who claimed that "Mimaki-iri-biko from Mimana" ( a Chinhan ruler with connection to Puyo people) was "the leader of the horse riding invasion force". In contrast with Egame, Hong claimed that it would be the Paekche who invaded Wa Japan and set up the Yamato State. Hong believed that Egame could not divest himself from the imperialist Japanese viewpoint that Japanese could never be subjugated by an inferior race like the Koreans. In an academic article, Egami (1964) stated the 'Horserider Invasion' which was to say that "the alien people called the gods of heaven were a North East Asian people related to the peoples of Fu-yu [Puyeo] and Kao-chu-li [Koguryeo]... immediately prior to their invasion of Japan, they [the horseriding invaders] were based on the Mimana area in south Korea." Egame's theories, however, were built on undisputable artifacts excavated from the tombs of intermdiate and late Kofun time periods. The tombs had shown striking similarities to those in Korea, which made the Japanese into an awkward position should they deny the sudden continental influx in the 4th century. The Koreans claimed that it would be the Paekche people who would later set up the State of Yamato. This school of thought had claimed that the Paekches, out of hatred for the Sillas who conquered their country, had embarked on a mission to hide or destroy their Korean identities. They basically wrote the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki in late 7th and early 8th century to make the 'invasion' occur hundreds of years earlier than it actually occurred. http://www.koreanhistoryproject.org stated that "in the winter of 369 AD, Prince Homuda's expeditionary force landed on the northern shore of Kyushu at Hakata Bay on the westernmost of Japan's large islands... Prince Homuda's army pushed eastward for six years, encountering fierce resistance from many of the clans in its path... finally halted on the rich agricultural plain formed by the Yodo and Yamato Rivers at the head of Osaka Bay... Prince Homuda proclaimed the creation of his new kingdom, taking its name from the surrounding region and giving the country its first official 'name' - Yamato. Silla Ouyang Xiu of Song Dynasty, in his book New History Of Tang Dynasty, said that the founders of Silla were descendants of the Bianhan people who historically dwelled in the area of then Lelang Commandary. (Ouyang also recorded that to the east of Silla there were a group of people called the 'Tall Guys' who were cannibals and that Silla had to dispatch thousands of soldiers to guard against them.) http://www.koreanhistoryproject.org gives details of the tribes involved: "In 57 BC, the six clan chieftains of the King's Council met in the village of Kyongju, capital of the small walled-town state of Saro. They formed a new political alliance among the several smaller tribal states in the old Chinhan territory east of the Naktong River and chose Pak Hyokkose of the Kumnyang clan as their first leader. By consolidation and outright conquest, the walled-town state of Saro linked itself with other walled-town states in the area, gradually expanded its frontier beyond the confines of the Kyongju plain, and evolved into the rather large confederated kingdom of Silla. " Paekche Ouyang Xiu of Song Dynasty, in his book New History Of Tang Dynasty, said the Paekche derived from the Tungusic Puyo tribes in Manchuria. 'Samguk Shidae': Korean's Three Kindoms Samguk Shidae sounds just like Chinese as meaning the times of the three kindoms. In the Korean Peninsula, the 1st to 3rd centuries would mark a contentious period in which various Korean states fought with each other and the Han Chinese. With Kaya (42 AD-562AD) included, some historians refer to this period as "Four Kingdoms" instead of Korea's "Three Kingdoms". History of Korea Ancient History (pre-918 A.D.) Kory Dynasty (918-1392) Chosn Dynasty (1392-1910) Colonial Period (1910-1945) Liberation and the Korean War (1945-1953) Contemporary Korea (Post 1953) Koguryo & Koryo When Han Emperor Wudi quelled Korea in 107 BC, Korea was made into Xuantu Commandary, and Koguryo territory was treated as a county with this same name. Koguryo people later rebelled against Han Dynasty by building a castle on the eastern border of the commandary, designating it with a name called Gou-lou. The sound is similar to the later statelet name. Koguryo was said to have been founded by Zhu-meng in 37 BC. Founder Zhu-meng rose up in Gaojuli [Koguryo] county of Xuantu-jun Commandary [i.e., Xinbin-xian county of Liaoning Prov]. History chronicle "Bei Shi" (History of Northern Dynasty) stated that Fuyu king obtained the daughter of He-bo (river god) and bore an egg after being chased by sunlight. This egg was not touched by dogs, pigs, horses and buffalos when deserted to the wilderness. Birds were said to have covered the egg with feathers. After the birth-mother wrapped it with clothing, a boy, i.e., Zhu-meng (i.e., meaning good arrow shooter), came out of the cracked egg. When persecuted by the Fuyu court ministers, Zhu-meng fled across a river towards Korean peninsula. He crossed the river by calling on turtles and tortoise to make a bridge. Zhu-meng claimed to be son of the SUN god and maternal grandson of RIVER god. Zhu-meng made his statelet Koguryo in a place called Qi-sheng-gu-cheng castle [Huanren county of Liaoning Prov] and adopted Gao (i.e., Ko) as surname, which means "high" in Chinese. The grandson of Zhu-meng later went north to have Fuyu kingdom subjugated and merged. In AD 3, capital was moved to Guonei-cheng city [Ji'an city of Liaoning Prov]. Another major city called Wandushan-cheng was built inside today's Ji'an of Jilin Prov. During the Xin Dynasty (AD 9-23), Emperor Wang Mang had tried to recruit the Koguryo people in the campaigns against northern nomads. But the Koguryo people refused to participate in the campaign, and most of the Koguryo people fled northward as bandits. Governor Tian Tan tried to capture the Koguryo people but got killed. Yan You tricked the Koguryo marquis into arrest and killed him. Wang Mang thus renamed Koguryo or Ko-guryo into Xia-guryo. In here, the prefix "Ko" means high, and "Xia" means lower in Chinese. By the time of eighth year of first Latter Han (AD 25-220) Emperor Guangwudi's reign, the Koguryo marquis sent emmisary to the Chinese capital in the name of a king (rather a marquis). TO BE CONTINUED !!! History chronicle "Xin Tang Shi" (New History of Tang Dynasty) stated that Koguryo, with capital at Pyongyang (i.e., China's equivalent Chang-an city, meaning "forever peaceful"), was where Han Dynasty's Lelang Commandary was. Major cities include Guonei-cheng and Han-cheng (Seoul). It had twelve levels of officialdom, five tribes, and 60 prefectures and counties. Confucian filielty of three year mourning for parents was adopted. Oblatory gods included stars, sun, ke-han (khan), Ji-zi (i.e., Shang Dynasty prince), and a devine cave. Koguryo moved its capital to Pyongyang of Korea in AD 427, i.e., the 4th year of Tuoba Wei Dynasty's Shiguang Era. By the end of Sui Dynasty, a half brother called Jianwu succeeded Koguryo King Gao Yuan. During Tang Emperor Gaozu's Wude Era (AD 618-626), Korean King Gao Jianwu sent in tributes. Tang Emperor, as a show of friendship, deported all Koguryo people dwelling inside of China, about 10000 people, back to Korea. Three years later, Korean King Gao Jianwu was conferred the title of Shangzhuguo, Liaodong-jun-wang (King of Liaodong Commandary), and Gaoli-wang (King of Koryo). Daoists were dispatched to Korea for teaching Lao-zi thoughts. Korean King Gao Jianwu assembled several thousands of people for listening to Daoist lectures. Tang minister Pei Ju and Wen Yanbo advised against Emperor Gaozu in demanding that Korean King must submit to Tang China as a minister in accordance with Cao Wei Dynasty and Jinn Dynasty practices. One year later, Silla and Paekche complained that that Koguryo deliberately blockaded their passage to China. When Tang emissary Zhu Zishe rebuked the Koguryo king, King Jianwu requested for pardon. At the times of Tang Emperor Taizong, King Jianwu sent in congratulations in regards to the capture of Turkic Khan Xieli and submitted Koguryo domain map. When Tang Emperor Taizong dispatched troops for dismantling Koguryo monuments at the site of Sui Dynasty soldiers' mass graves, King Jianwu began to build walls for defending against possible Tang invasions, with the defence wall leading from Fuyu in northeastern Korean coast to the seaside in northwestern Korean coast. TO BE CONTINUED !!! Koguryo was toppled by the allied army of Tang Dynasty and Silla in AD 668 after a history of 705 years. In AD 668, 30000 Koguryo people were exiled to Yangtze and Huai-shui River area as well as Shan-na (i.e., southern China). By AD 670, Koguryo rebellion was quelled altogether, and remnants fled to Silla. Silla relief army was defeated by Tang Dynasty, too. In AD 677, Korea ex-king Zang was released back to Korea with a conferred title of Liaodong-dudu (governor-general for Eastern Liaoning) and Chaoxian-jun-wang (King of Korea Commandary). When Zang colluded with Mohe (i.e., Jurchen ancestor), Tang court ordered that Zang be exiled to Qiong-zhou (Qionglai of Sichuan Prov in western China) and that his folowers be relocated to He-nan (south of Yellow River) and Long-you (Gansu Prov). When Zang died around AD 682, he was buried next to Turkic Khan Xieli's tomb. With Koguryo territories merged by Silla and remnants fleeing to Turks and Mohe, Gao-shi clan became almost extinct. During AD 685-688, a grandson called Gao Baoyuan was conferred the title of Chaoxian-jun-wang (King of Korea Commandary). Around AD 698, Gao Baoyuan was upgraded |
![Though, Anna Wang [Anneliese Martens], in her memoirs, expressed jealousy over Gong Peng by stating that the Anglo-American reporters had flattered the Chinese communists and the communist movement as a result of being entranced with the goldfish-eye'ed personal assistant of Zhou Enlai](GongPeng.jpg)
